Nanomedicine

Syphilis is a chronic and multi-stage infectious disease caused by Treponema pallidum, which has a rapid spread, resistance to immune responses, and chronic infection. This review is a synthesis of animal evidence to study the pathogenesis, clinical synergies, diagnostic plans, treatment plans, and epidemiological implications of the disease. The use of animal models, especially rabbits, has been critical in understanding the interaction of the host and pathogen, development of lesions, and immunological reactions. This research indicates the relative performance of the traditional and reverse screening algorithm, which shows that reverse screening has a better sensitivity during both early and latent periods, whereas the traditional approach is useful in monitoring active infection. The development of molecular diagnostics, particularly PCR and immunoassays, has improved early diagnosis and evaluation of the disease, whereas penicillin remains the most effective treatment despite the emerging resistance issues in other treatments. Additionally, experimental epidemiological research adds to the knowledge on the dynamics and persistence of transmission. Nevertheless, animal model limitations and issues with vaccine development because of immune evasion remain a major problem. The review highlights the necessity of a better experimental model, combined diagnostic, and novel treatment and vaccine options to improve the management of the disease and future research outcomes.

Dermatological drug delivery remains a major challenge due to the complex structure and barrier properties of the skin, particularly the stratum corneum, which limits the penetration of therapeutic agents. In recent years, niosomes, non-ionic surfactant-based vesicular systems, have emerged as a promising approach to overcome these limitations. Niosomes possess a unique bilayer structure that allows encapsulation of both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs, enabling enhanced stability, controlled release, and targeted drug delivery to specific skin layers. Their biocompatibility, cost-effectiveness, and ability to improve drug retention make them superior to conventional systems such as creams, gels, and liposomes. Recent advancements in niosomal technology, including elastic niosomes, proniosomes, and surface-modified formulations, have further improved their performance in dermatological applications such as acne, psoriasis, fungal infections, and inflammatory conditions. Moreover, the integration of nanotechnology and development of hybrid niosome–hydrogel systems have expanded their potential for both therapeutic and cosmetic use. This review highlights the structural characteristics, formulation strategies, mechanisms of skin targeting, and current research trends in niosome-based drug delivery systems, emphasizing their potential to revolutionize topical and transdermal therapies.

Brain-targeted drug delivery represents one of the most challenging frontiers in pharmacology due to the presence of the blood–brain barrier (BBB), enzymatic degradation, and efflux transporters. Integration of biopharmaceutics with neuropharmacology has enabled the design of advanced delivery systems that enhance drug bioavailability, specificity, and therapeutic efficacy in central nervous system (CNS) disorders. This review explores current strategies for brain-targeted delivery, including nanoparticles, liposomes, polymeric carriers, and ligand-mediated systems. Mechanistic insights into BBB penetration, pharmacokinetic considerations, and clinical translation challenges are discussed. Future directions involve stimuli-responsive carriers, nanotheranostics, and precision neuropharmacology for personalized CNS therapy.

Artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as a transformative tool in pharmacology and pharmaceutics, enabling accelerated drug discovery, formulation optimization, and clinical translation. Machine learning, deep learning, and predictive modeling improve target identification, lead optimization, and personalized therapy. AI-driven platforms facilitate high-throughput screening, pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) modeling, and nanocarrier design, reducing time, cost, and attrition rates. This review highlights the applications of AI across the drug development pipeline, from molecular discovery to regulatory submission, and discusses challenges, ethical considerations, and future perspectives in precision pharmacotherapy.