Stuti Verma

Conjoined twinning is a very rare congenital disorder that results from partial separation during the development of the embryos in cases of monozygotic twins. Male-female symmetrical conjoined twins with an opposite phenotype in relation to their biological sex are an extremely rare developmental abnormality due to the complications involved, from an embryological, genetic, hormonal, clinical, and ethical standpoint. In this review, we discuss the embryological causes of conjoined twinning, sexual differentiation processes, and the potential causes of discordant phenotypical sex development through chromosomal mosaicism, epigenetics, asymmetry of hormone distribution, or receptors. Furthermore, Disorders of Sex Development (DSD), prenatal diagnosis and molecular analyses, psychosocial impacts, surgery, and ethical issues related to sexual discordance among conjoined twins are evaluated. Our current scientific knowledge is limited since such cases are extremely rare.

The modern repair of hernia disease has undergone tremendous transitions in the past where open surgeries are still used to repair the hernia, to sophisticated minimally invasive and robotic assisted techniques through animal-based research being very essential in the understanding of the structure of the anatomy, biomaterials functions and the healing process. This review is a systematic analysis of the existing literature performed on animal models like rodents, rabbits, pigs, and canines to indicate the efficacy of various types of mesh, surgical methods and new technologies in enhancing clinical outcomes and recurrence. The results suggest that, biologic and composite mesh stimulates tissue integration, neovascularisation and organized collagen deposition and less inflammatory response and adhesion formation in comparison with synthetic mesh. As well, less invasive and robotic-assisted surgery methods enhance surgical accuracy, less tissue trauma, and outcome reproducibility. Nevertheless, interspecies variability, absence of standardized models, and inadequate long-term data are also limitations to direct translational applicability. The review notes the significance of the incorporation of advanced technologies including bioengineered meshes, artificial intelligence, and 3D bio printing and the necessity of standardized and long-term and interdisciplinary research to enhance the safety and efficacy of hernia repair approaches

Three-dimensional (3D) printing has become a transformative technology in pharmaceutical sciences, allowing the creation of customized drug delivery systems with precise control over shape, dosage, and release profiles. This review offers a thorough overview of 3D printing methods used in pharmaceuticals, including their materials, design strategies, characterization techniques, and current clinical and regulatory environments. Applications encompass personalized medicine, polypills, controlled-release implants, and new pediatric formulations. Despite its significant potential, 3D printing faces challenges related to scalability, quality control, and regulatory approval. Recent FDA approvals, notably of the first 3D-printed drug Spritam®, represent important milestones. Future advancements depend on unified guidelines, digital manufacturing integration, and AI-driven formulation improvements.