poorly water-soluble drugs

The oral bioavailability of many medications, especially BCS Class II and Class IV substances, is significantly limited by poor water solubility. Three main options for improving bioavailability are examined in this review: solid dispersions, lipid-based drug delivery systems, and nanotechnology-based methods. Lipid-based systems like SEDDS, SMEDDS, and SNEDDS promote solubilisation and absorption, whereas solid dispersions improve drug dissolution by amorphization and improved wettability. By increasing surface area and improving permeability, nanotechnology-based carriers—such as nanoparticles, nanosuspensions, and nanoemulsions—further boost drug delivery. These technologies considerably increase oral bioavailability, solubility, and dissolution rate, according to the reviewed research. Stability, scalability, production, and regulatory approval are still issues, though. Promising prospects for future developments in oral medication delivery are provided by cutting-edge techniques, including hybrid delivery systems and formulation design aided by artificial intelligence.

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) constitutes a significant global health challenge, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, where late-stage diagnoses and therapeutic resistance are prevalent. Conventional treatments, including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, are constrained by substantial toxicity, disfigurement, and the emergence of drug resistance. This systematic review evaluates the therapeutic potential of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in oral cancer therapy by analyzing 42 preclinical studies published between 2013 and 2025. AgNPs demonstrate multifaceted anticancer activity through polypharmacological mechanisms such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, mitochondrial disruption, DNA damage, and induction of apoptosis via both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. Additional effects include anti-angiogenic, anti-metastatic, and immunomodulatory properties. AgNPs exhibit selective cytotoxicity toward cancer cells, which is enhanced by their nanoscale dimensions and targeted surface functionalization with ligands such as folic acid. Green synthesis methods provide cost-effective and biocompatible alternatives to conventional chemical synthesis, although issues with batch reproducibility and clinical scalability remain. While in vitro and in vivo studies indicate promising efficacy, concerns persist regarding long-term toxicity, bioaccumulation, and regulatory approval. To date, no AgNP-based formulations have advanced to clinical trials for OSCC. This review highlights critical knowledge gaps and outlines future research priorities to optimize AgNP synthesis, ensure safety, and facilitate clinical translation. AgNPs thus represent a promising multifunctional nanomedicine platform with the potential to advance oral cancer therapeutics through targeted, sustainable, and synergistic strategies.