EPR effect

The invention of good vaccines is one of the most important milestones in global health. Nonetheless, adverse factors like lack of immunogenicity, low antigen stability and the requirement to treat several times has led to the development of novel delivery mechanisms. Niosomes, which are vesicles made of non-ionic surfactants, have also become a promising mode of delivery of vaccines as they are capable of encapsulation of the hydrophilic as well as hydrophobic antigens, controlled release, and stimulation of immune responses. This paper discusses how niosome-based vaccines can be used to enhance antigen presentation, generate humoral and cellular immunity and deal with issues in traditional vaccine preparations. The review is methodologically based on the synthesis of the findings of the available pre-clinical and clinical trials in order to assess the design of the vaccines, their mechanism of action, and immunological effects of niosome-based vaccines. Findings present that niosome formulations enhance stability of antigens, extend the period of circulation, and increase immunogenic reactions relative to conventional adjuvants. The discussion presents their benefits, current weaknesses, and future opportunities in vaccine development particularly in infectious disease and cancer immunotherapy.